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====== Bret Davis (2007:5-9) – vontade ======

//Data: 2023-12-08 16:20//

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[...] se quisermos seguir o caminho de Heidegger para repensar a vontade, temos de pôr em causa de forma mais radical o pressuposto tradicional de que a vontade é simplesmente uma "faculdade do sujeito". Para começar, e se fosse verdade o contrário — que a subjetividade é antes, por assim dizer, uma "faculdade da vontade"? E se a vontade estivesse subjacente ao sujeito, e não o contrário? Em outras palavras, e se fosse o caso de pensar em termos de um sujeito que possui faculdades, um "sujeito que quer", já envolve um modo particular de ser-no-mundo com vontade? Isto é, e se a própria ontologia que estabelece um sujeito que se contrapõe a um mundo de objectos, ao qual depois se dirige por meio de faculdades, poderes de pensamento representacional e ação volitiva, for ela própria determinada por um modo intencional de ser e pensar?

Esta é, de facto, a direção do questionamento que o pensamento de Heidegger engendra, escreve ele:

Com a palavra "vontade" não me refiro, de fato, a uma faculdade da alma, mas antes — de acordo com a doutrina unânime, embora ainda pouco pensada, dos pensadores ocidentais — àquilo em que se funda a essência da alma, do espírito, da razão, do amor e da vida, (GA77:78)
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Uma tonalidade afetiva fundamental [Grundstimmung] é um comportamento "anterior" à determinação de qualquer sujeito, objeto ou relação intencional entre eles. Não podemos, por isso, começar por definir a vontade como uma faculdade do sujeito, porque o nosso pensamento em termos de um "sujeito equipado com faculdades para confrontar o mundo" é dependente de um certo modo já "voluntarioso" de ser-no-mundo, Parte do que está em jogo na crítica de Heidegger à vontade é ver que a própria compreensão do ser dos entes em termos de "sujeitos" e "objetos" está implicada numa particular Grundstimmung voluntariosa. Só dentro desta tonalidade afetiva fundamental particular faz sentido falar do ato subjetivo de querer ou da "faculdade da vontade". Uma tonalidade afetiva fundamental seria "fundamental" no sentido de que primeiro abre (alguém) para um mundo, antes da determinação de "quem" é aberto para "o quê". Refletidamente, encontramo-nos sempre já envolvidos numa tal sintonização, tal como perceptivamente encontramos o mundo sempre já revelado através dessa sintonização. Uma tonalidade afetiva fundamental voluntária determina, em primeiro lugar, a ontologia em que um sujeito está aberto a um mundo de objetos de tal forma que o "aberto a" desta relação é distorcido (constringido) na representação de objetos presentes, se não mesmo na garantia de uma totalidade de materiais prontos para uma manipulação voluntária. Heidegger, de fato, vai ainda "mais longe" do que isto na sua determinação do termo "vontade". A vontade, para Heidegger posterior, não é apenas uma questão de sintonização fundamental do sujeito que procura dominar o mundo; é, antes ainda, o nome para o ser dos entes na época da modernidade.

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Let us begin with the term “will.” What is the will? As heirs of the modern Western philosophical tradition, we tend to understand the will as a “faculty of the subject,” to be distinguished from “thinking” or “feeling.” To be sure, a standard historical introduction to the notion of will in the West would involve an examination beginning at least with the ancient Greeks, perhaps asking why they had not yet “discovered” the unity of this faculty.((Hannah Arendt makes this claim in “Willing,” part 2 of her The Life of the Mind, one-volume edition (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1978). She argues that Aristotle’s notion of proairesis is (merely) a precursor for the faculty of the will, while the Greek notion of orexis remains a matter of “desire” and not will in the sense of free and deliberate choice (part 2, pp. 57ff.). Heidegger, on the other hand, at least in 1936, sees the Greek notion of orexis, in its connection with the representation of an object desired, as the notion which determines in advance the concept of will in the entire Western tradition culminating in German idealism and in Nietzsche’s will to power (N166ff./54ff.). For a helpful summary of the longstanding debate over whether there was already a concept of will in Aristotle, or whether it was only with Augustine and the Christian tradition that the faculty of will appears, see Otfried Höffe, Aristotle, trans. Christine Salazar (Albany: SUNY Press, 2003), 143-46. For more detailed treatments of this question and others relating to the standard history of the concept of “will” in Western philosophy, see Tomas Pink and M. W. F. Stone, eds., The Will and Human Action: From Antiquity to the Present Day (London/New York: Routledge, 2004).)) One might then move on to the gradual piecing together of the faculty of the will in the Stoics, and then to its first unified appearance in Augustine’s voluntas.((See Richard Sorabji, “The Concept of the Will from Plato to Maximus the Confessor,” in Will and Human Action, ed. Pink and Stone.)) Next, one might consider the debates in Scholastic theology over whether the faculty of will or that of intellect is the “higher faculty.” After working through Kant’s critical delimitations of the spheres proper to each faculty, one could argue, against both irrational voluntarism and disengaged intellectualism, for a balance of powers. Since on this account the faculty of the will could be shown to be the backbone of action, any predilection for “non-willing,” such as Heidegger’s thought of Gelassenheit, might then be criticized as yet another reoccurrence of the old philosopher’s prejudice for “thinking” over “acting,” a prejudice harmless enough in the ivory tower but dangerous to the political sphere [6] which requires not only thought but also action and thus will,((For Arendt’s critical interpretation of Heidegger as purportedly opting for the faculty of thinking as Gelassenheit over the faculty of willing, see Life of the Mind, part 2, pp. 172ff.)) This is, in fact, roughly the manner in which Hannah Arendt analyzes the will,

Yet despite Arendt’s illuminating account of the relation between the faculties of thought and will (unfortunately she died before finishing the third part of her study, which would have treated the faculty of judgment) through the history of philosophy, if we are to pursue Heidegger’s path of rethinking the will, we must more radically call into question the traditional assumption that the will is simply a “faculty of the subject,” To begin with, what if it were the case that something akin to the opposite were true  —  that subjectivity is rather, as it were, a “faculty of the will”? What if the will underlies the subject, and not vice versa? In other words, what if it were the case that thinking in terms of a subject who possesses faculties, a “subject who wills,” already involves a particular willful mode of being-in-the-world? That is, what if the very ontology which sets up a subject who stands over against a world of objects, to which it then reaches out by means of faculties, powers of representational thought and volitional action, is itself determined by a willful manner of being and thinking?

This, indeed, is the direction of questioning which Heidegger’s thought engenders, He writes:

<quote>By the word “will” I mean, in fact, not a faculty of the soul, but rather  —   in accordance with the unanimous, though hardly yet thought-through doctrine of Western thinkers  —  that wherein the essence of the soul, spirit, reason, love, and life are grounded. (GA77:78)</quote>

Rather than seeing willing and thinking as separate and competing faculties, Heidegger attempts to show that traditional (especially modern) thinking, as representing, is a kind of willing: “Thinking is willing, and willing is thinking” (GA30:59). His own task, as we shall see, is to attempt a thinking which “is something other than willing” (ibid,), not because it chooses the one faculty over the other, and not because it is a mere passivity  —  indeed Heidegger sometimes suggests that genuine thinking involves “a higher activity [ein höheres Tun]” (GA33:61)  —  but because such thinking, together with “dwelling” and “building,” would be other than willing, Before broaching this question of “non-willing,” however, we need to get clear on what is meant by the term “will,”

What then is the will if not first of all a faculty of the subject? Let me introduce a certain interpretive extrapolation at this point, I suggest that we can understand the notion of will by way of what Heidegger calls a “fundamental attunement” (Grundstimmung). Let us develop the sense in which this interpretive connection of terms is intended here, Heidegger writes:

<quote>[7] An attunement is a way [eine Weise] ... in the sense of a melody that does not merely hover over the so-called proper being at hand of humans, but that sets the tone for such a being, i.e., attunes and determines the manner and way [Art und Wie] of their being. . . . [Attunement] is . . . the fundamental manner in which Dasein is as Dasein [die Grundweise, wie das Dasein als Dasein ist]. . . . [It] is not  —  is never  —  simply a consequence or side-effect of our thinking, doing, and letting. It is  —  to put it crudely  —  the presupposition for such things, the “medium” within which they first happen. (GA29-30:101; see also GA9:110/87)</quote>

In another text Heidegger writes:

<quote>A deep-rooted and very old habit of experience and speech stipulates that we interpret feelings and attunements [Gefühle und Stimmungen]  —  as well as willing and thinking  —  in a psychological-anthropological sense as occurrences and processes within an organism. . . . This also means that we are “subjects,” present at hand, who are displaced into this or that attunement [Stimmung] by “getting” them. In truth, however, it is the attunement that displaces us, namely into this or that understanding or disclosure of the world, into such and such a resolve or occlusion of one’s self, a self which is essentially a being-in-the-world. (GA45:161)</quote>

Although Heidegger does not usually explicitly connect the notion of Grundstimmung with that of the will, at one point in his analysis of Nietzsche’s conception of will  —  the conception which most directly influenced his own  —  he writes the following:

<quote>Will is command. . . . In commanding, “the innermost conviction of superiority” is what is decisive. Accordingly, Nietzsche understands commanding as the fundamental attunement of one’s being superior [die Grundstimmung des Überlegenseins].... (GA6T1:N1 651/152)</quote>

Although in at least this passage Heidegger does explicitly refer to the will as a fundamental attunement, I shall not pursue further here the textual question of the relation between the two terms in Heidegger’s corpus.((The following are a few indications for pursuing a strict investigation of Heidegger’s uses of the term Grundstimmung. Whereas in Being and Time Heidegger speaks of the “fundamental disposition” (Grundbefindlichkeit) of anxiety, a radically individualizing and presumably non-historically determined mood, in 1929 Heidegger began to think a historical and communal sense of Grundstimmung. In The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics Heidegger speaks of the need to awaken to the Grundstimmung of our age, which he describes as that of “boredom” (Langweile]). In the 1930s Heidegger finds in Hölderlin the Grundstimmung of a “holy mourning” for the remoteness of the gods and our distance from the homeland. In Contributions to Philosophy, as in Basic Questions of Philosophy written around the same time (1936-38), Heidegger speaks of the Grundstimmung of the Greek “first beginning” as that of “wonder” (Staunen). He claims, however, that there can be no simple return to this inceptual wonder; the Grundstimmung of the anticipated “other beginning” need rather be one of “startled dismay” (Erschrecken). In later texts, however, he speaks of the need to reawaken a sense of wonder (see GA71:90). For a discussion of Heidegger’s concept of Stimmung see Michel Haar’s article “Attunement and Thinking,” in Heidegger: A Critical Reader, ed. Hubert L. Dreyfus and Harrison Hall (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992); and also chapter 2 of Haar’s The Song of the Earth: Heidegger and the Grounds of the History of Being trans. Reginald Lilly (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993). I am thus taking a certain amount of interpretive liberty in directly connecting the notion of “fundamental attunement” with the will and with non-willing or Gelassenheit, although this connection shall prove to be far from arbitrary.)) My point is that an entry into what Heidegger understands by the notion of will, the sense in which he does not mean by it one “faculty of the subject” among others, can be gained by way of thinking the will as a fundamental attunement.

A fundamental attunement is a comportment “prior to” the determination of any subject, object, or intentional relation between them. We cannot, therefore, begin by defining the will as a faculty of the subject, because [8] our thinking in terms of a “subject equipped with faculties for confronting the world” is dependent on a certain already “willful” mode of being-in-the-world, Part of what is at stake in Heidegger’s critique of the will is to see that the very understanding of the being of beings in terms of “subjects” and “objects” is implicated in a particular willful Grundstimmung. Only within this particular fundamental attunement does it make sense to speak of the subjective act of willing or of “the faculty of the will.” A fundamental attunement would be “fundamental” in the sense that it first opens (one) up (to) a world, prior to the determination of “who” is opened up to “what.” We reflectively find ourselves always already involved in such an attunement, just as we perceptively find the world always already disclosed through such an attunement. A willful fundamental attunement first determines the ontology wherein a subject is open to a world of objects in such a manner that the “open to” of this relation is distorted (constricted) into the representation of objects present-at-hand, if not indeed into the securing of a totality of materials ready for willful manipulation. Heidegger, in fact, goes even “further” than this in his determination of the term “will.” The will, for the later Heidegger, is not only a matter of the fundamental attunement of the subject who seeks to dominate the world; it is, prior still, the name for the being of beings in the epoch of modernity. Thus he writes:

<quote>The will in this willing does not mean here a faculty [Vermögen] of the human soul ... ; the word “willing” here designates the being of beings as a whole. Every single being and all beings as a whole have their essential powers [das Vermögen seines Wesens] in and through the will, (WhD 35/91)</quote>

For Heidegger, the fundamental attunement (Grundstimmung) of man’s historical essence is in turn determined (bestimmt) by a “sending of being,” This sending (Seinsgeschick) is always a granting-in-withdrawal, and thus always involves an interplay of revealing/concealing; yet in the modern epoch of will this occurs as an extreme self-withholding of being, a denial which abandons man to the fundamental (dis)attunement of will.

A turn to the “proper fundamental attunement” of non-willing could, then, only take place by way of a turning in the sending of being. The crucial question of how man is to “participate” in this sending  —  and specifically of how he is to “wait for,” “prepare for,” or “cor-respond to” the turning  —  shall be a central concern of this study. It may turn out that we need to think in terms of a “double genitive” in the turning to non-willing as a “fundamental a-tunement of man”; or rather, as with the case of the [9] “thinking of being” (see GA9:313ff./239ff.), it may be necessary to liberate ourselves from the very framework of the subject/predicate grammar that compels us to think in terms of a dichotomy between an active agent and a passive recipient.

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//PS: DAVIS, B. W. Heidegger and the will: on the way to Gelassenheit. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern Univ. Press, 2007//